Cancer is a disease that develops when cells in the body become abnormal and start growing out of control. These abnormal cells can grow into tumors, which may invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. This process is called metastasis. Cancer can be any type of cell in the body, including skin cells, bone cells, blood cells, or cells that line the digestive tract and reproductive organs. Normally, cells grow and divide to produce more cells as the body needs them. Old or damaged cells die and new cells replace them. This process is regulated by proteins that control cell growth and division, known as oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes. Cancers occur when some of these genes get changed, or mutate, and no longer control cell growth. These changes, or mutations, usually occur in parts of DNA that code for proteins. Most of the time, cancer-causing genes are turned on (activated) and can’t be switched off. Mutations can also be caused by viruses, radiation, chemicals, and certain types of infections. Most cancers start in a single cell. Over time, it grows and divides to make more cancer cells, or more mutations. Eventually, the cancer cells outgrow other healthy cells and can’t be stopped. Cancers can be any shape or size. They may form solid tumors that can be seen on the surface of the skin, or they can develop in the fluids that surround and protect the tissues inside the body, such as the blood and bone marrow. Cancers that form in the liquid part of the blood, such as leukemias and lymphomas, don’t form solid tumors but are easily detected on laboratory tests. While a cancer diagnosis can be frightening, it is important to remember that many people with cancer live normal lives and are treated for their condition. Cancers that are caught early, when they are small in size and few in number, are often curable. Cancers that spread to other parts of the body are often treatable, too, especially if they can be removed surgically. Researchers are investigating a number of different things that might cause cancer, and ways to prevent it. Anything that increases a person’s chance of developing cancer is called a risk factor. Factors that decrease a person’s chances of getting cancer are called protective factors. Some risk factors, like smoking, are easy to avoid, while others, such as chronic irritation of tissue, are difficult to prevent. Scientists are also studying whether there are ways to predict which people will develop cancer, and how to identify precancerous conditions in order to stop them from becoming cancer. Precancerous conditions include squamous cell carcinoma, warts, and precancerous polyps. These can be removed before they develop into full-blown cancer. For more information, see the article: What is Cancer?

Medical is the discipline concerned with the causes, course and resolution of disease. It is a combination of art (the practice of restoring health through the use of drugs and surgical techniques) and science (the study of biological functions). Medicine covers many specialties, such as gynecology, neurology, internal medicine and gastroenterology. It also includes veterinary medicine, which is the treatment of domestic and wild animals. It is a highly technical field and, even for non-specialists, understanding the underlying science is challenging. The history of medicine is a long and complex one, with the first traces dating back to ancient times. Early Western medicine was based on folklore and pre-modern scientific ideas, such as the theory of the four humors. This gradually gave way to modern scientific biomedical research, led by scientists such as Edward Jenner and Robert Koch, which developed vaccines for smallpox and other diseases. Most modern healthcare systems provide comprehensive coverage for the cost of hospitalization and medications. These are typically funded by taxpayers, but some wealthy countries also maintain private insurance systems. Medical care has also expanded to include the prevention and monitoring of diseases through screening programmes and public education. There are also a number of specific areas of medicine: Conservation medicine, for example, encompasses the impact of humans and non-human animals on ecosystems; diving medicine deals with problems related to human and animal diving; forensic medicine studies the medical evidence that may be found in criminal investigations such as identification, the time of death, cause of injury or the type of weapon used to inflict a wound; and epidemiology, which involves the study of diseases in populations and their causes. Other specialized fields within medicine include clinical update articles, which are shorter pieces highlighting new developments around a particular condition; and regulatory medical writing, which is the preparation of documents for the approval of medicines or devices. The latter is particularly difficult, as it requires a good understanding of the regulatory authorities’ requirements. The practice of medicine is also influenced by a number of other disciplines, including the social sciences (history, philosophy, ethics, religion and cultural studies) and the arts (literature, theatre and music). It is also influenced by the philosophy of science, which outlines a set of criteria for validating scientific claims. This is known as the scientific method. It is this method that is followed by all doctors when making decisions about their patients. Medical writers must be familiar with the principles of this methodology, and should always be aware of their own limitations. This is important because of the wide scope for misunderstanding that can arise when the language of science is misused or misunderstood. For this reason, they should take great care when preparing clinical updates and other articles for publication. The best medical writers are meticulous in their research and ensure that all of the relevant information is presented clearly to their readers. See our guide to medical writing for more information.

Cancer is a disease that starts when cells in the body begin to grow and divide out of control. These extra cells form a mass of tissue called a tumor. Cancer can also spread to other parts of the body when it breaks away from the original tumor and travels through the blood or lymph system. This is called metastasis. Cancer cells are different from normal cells because of changes (mutations) in the genes that control how the cells grow and divide. Mutations can happen by chance or they can be triggered by certain things that are in the environment, such as tobacco smoke or exposure to radiation. The genetic changes that lead to cancer may be inherited or they can develop over time, such as when cells divide too many times. Cells need a steady supply of oxygen and nutrients to grow and survive. When cancer cells start to grow out of control, they can crowd out healthy cells. This can cause problems with the organs or tissues where the cancer is growing, such as making it hard to breathe or causing pain in bones and joints. Cancer can also spread when the abnormal cells break away from the tumor and travel to other areas of the body. Some types of cancer are more likely to spread than others. Scientists study risk factors and protective factors to find ways to prevent cancers from starting and to help find better treatments for people with cancer. Different cancers grow in different ways, but all cancers are dangerous. They can kill you if they grow out of control and spread to other parts of the body, but they can be treated with medicines that stop cancer cells from growing, cure cancer or make them less likely to return after treatment. The way a cancer is diagnosed and staged (how far the cancer has grown or spread) helps doctors decide which treatment is best for you. Some cancers show warning signs that you should call your doctor about, but other cancers don’t have early warning signs and can be harder to detect. Each type of cancer has its own staging system, but most cancers are staged based on where they started in the body and how much they have spread. Different stages mean different treatments. Doctors use different tools to diagnose cancer and determine its stage, such as imaging tests, a biopsy or surgery. They also use medicines to stop cancer from spreading or to ease symptoms that you may have.

Medical is the discipline that applies the sciences and humanities to understand, diagnose, treat and prevent disease. Physicians are trained broadly in the basic sciences and then specialize into fields that reflect their interests, aptitudes and expertise. Some of the fields include psychiatry, pediatrics, oncology and orthopedics. Physicians work closely with other specialties, particularly surgery and radiology, to care for patients and provide them with a comprehensive treatment plan. Medical journals are the primary vehicle for the dissemination of scientific research to advance medical knowledge and practice. They are published on a weekly, monthly or quarterly basis and usually come in a magazine format. They are available in print and online. Many medical journals have specialty departments that focus on articles with unique formatting requirements or subject matter. For example, some may have a department for articles on diagnostic imaging or dermatology. These specialty areas can be important for attracting the attention of a targeted readership. Some of the most well-known medical journals are JAMA, The New England Journal of Medicine and The Lancet. These journals have long had a prestigious reputation and are read by physicians across the country and around the world. But as the popularity of these journals has grown, so too have predatory publications that exist solely to make money and do not put their manuscripts through rigorous review or check for accuracy. A physician who writes a scientific paper in a legitimate medical journal has made a huge contribution to his or her profession. This is true whether the article is a review of existing data or a piece of original research. But writing an article for a reputable journal is just the first step in a lengthy process. It is important for authors to carefully review the authorship instructions and formatting requirements of each journal in which they want to publish. The use of Latin and Greek roots in medical terminology creates words that are often long and complex. It is important for medical professionals to learn how to break down these words into their component parts to better understand them. The word part tables below are an excellent tool to use when learning medical terminology. An abbreviation or acronym is a short form of a medical term used to save space on a chart or to make it easier to read. Some of the most common abbreviations and acronyms are:

Health is the state of physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. A common view of health is that it includes a person’s freedom from illness, but also their happiness and their ability to participate fully in society. In order for people to be healthy they need to have a good balance of their inner resources and possibilities with the demands of the surrounding environment. As the world’s understanding of Health has developed over time, so too has its approach to promoting it. Today’s health professionals recognise that health is determined by many factors outside of a person’s control, and that their work involves more than just treating or preventing disease and injury. They are increasingly focussing on the broader concept of ‘healthy societies’, and trying to find ways to improve people’s lives in a range of different ways. Despite this shift in thinking, there are still wide differences in concepts of Health. This reflects the fact that, like disease, health is a socially and culturally constructed concept that makes sense predominantly in its home context. Attempts to understand it beyond this context can be problematic because it is easy for conceptualization to mislead, as it tends to localize and attribute identity, content or meaning to phenomena that are not firmly established within their home context. A person’s definition of health reflects the values they place on life and what they consider to be important for their own well-being. These values are shaped throughout a person’s lifetime by their parents, friends, teachers, religion, the media and laws. It is therefore difficult to change people’s definition of Health. Modern medical advances, including the discovery of new diseases and methods to cure them, mean that a person’s health is now measured by a much wider spectrum than in the past. As a result, many people who were previously deemed to be healthy can now be diagnosed with diseases that they had not been aware of. In 1948 the Constitution of the World Health Organization defined a health goal that is widely regarded as a basic human right: “The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health”. Although this definition acknowledges the existence of diseases and the need for their control, it does not necessarily ensure that an individual will be able to function in society. This is because the definition does not take into account a person’s ability to cope with or adjust to changes in their environment. It is for this reason that a healthful lifestyle is considered to be a prerequisite of good Health.

Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, reviewing and monitoring medications to ensure safe and effective use of drugs. It is a miscellaneous science because it links health sciences with pharmaceutical and natural sciences. Pharmacists are a vital part of the healthcare team and work closely with physicians to provide patient care. Their responsibilities include verifying prescriptions, informing patients of drug interactions, counseling patients on how to take their medication and providing vaccinations. They also provide advice on general health issues, such as diet and exercise. A pharmacist can perform several simple health care procedures, including measuring your blood pressure and temperature, and testing your blood sugar levels. They can also advise you on how to prevent and treat common illnesses like the flu, colds, aches and pains and other minor ailments. If they think your condition is more serious, they can refer you to a doctor. Increasingly, pharmacies are becoming a hub for community healthcare services. They can provide immunizations, offer advice on over-the-counter medicines and help with a range of other issues, such as healthy living, smoking cessation, and weight loss. Some pharmacies also have extended opening hours and are open on Sundays. Pharmacy is a highly respected profession that requires considerable training and specialized knowledge. In most countries, pharmacists must be licensed to dispense medications. Licensing requirements vary by country, but generally pharmacists must graduate from a pharmacy school, meet specific education and experience requirements, pass a national exam and a state or provincial licensing examination. Many also have to complete continuing education courses to maintain their license. Online pharmacies are a growing industry, and they may be independent internet-only sites, websites that operate as branches of traditional “brick-and-mortar” pharmacies or sites representing a partnership among pharmacies. Some online pharmacies sell only prescription drugs, while others also offer over-the-counter medications. In some countries, it is illegal to sell certain types of drugs without a valid prescription. A few important things to remember about online pharmacies: Legitimate pharmacies display their licenses in prominent places on their websites. They will also have secure payment systems and will only sell products that are approved by the local regulatory authorities. Be wary of any website that claims to sell unlicensed or counterfeit medications. Also, be careful when purchasing from sites that do not clearly explain the shipping and returns policies. In the United States, you can check whether an online pharmacy is legitimate by contacting your state’s Board of Pharmacy or visiting the FDA’s website. The FDA offers an online database of registered pharmacies. This database is updated daily and is searchable by state, city, or zip code. In addition, the database contains detailed information about each registered pharmacy, including contact details and license number. In some cases, you can even see a photo of the registered pharmacist. The database can be accessed from any computer with an internet connection.

Cancer starts when cells start to grow and divide too much or don’t die when they should. These abnormal cells form tumors (or masses) that can spread to other parts of the body. Cells can also change in other ways that cause the body’s systems to stop working normally, such as when they block blood vessels or make enzymes that break down normal tissue and waste. There are more than 100 types of cancer, but they all have one thing in common: They start when normal cells grow out of control. Then they build up, crowding out other cells and blocking the flow of oxygen or nutrients to those cells. Normal cells need a steady supply of oxygen and nutrients to grow, survive and perform their jobs. They get those nutrients from the blood. The body’s immune system usually kills any cancer cells that aren’t needed or can’t be controlled. But sometimes, the cancer cells escape and grow uncontrollably. Cancer can start in any part of the body. It can develop in bones, soft tissues, the blood or organs such as the liver, lungs or brain. Cancer cells can also spread to other parts of the body through the blood or lymphatic system. The new cancer cells may begin to grow in a nearby area or they may spread to areas far away from where the original cancer started, which is called metastasis. Scientists know what causes most kinds of cancer, but they are still learning more about how and why cancers start. They have found that some cancers are more likely to occur if certain genes become damaged or out of balance. These genetic changes are called mutations or alterations. The three main types of gene alterations that contribute to cancer are proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes and DNA repair genes. People can take steps to prevent some kinds of cancer by eating a healthy diet, exercising regularly and avoiding tobacco and excessive sun exposure. They can also limit their use of chemicals at home and at work, including weed killers, plastics and some household products. These chemicals are known as carcinogens, and they can damage the DNA in cells, raising your risk for cancer. Some cancers start in the skin, so it’s important to protect yourself from sunburn and cover up with clothing and sunscreen when you go outside. It’s also important to use a sunscreen that has an SPF of at least 30 or higher. Some research suggests that taking lots of antibiotics when you’re young can raise your risk for certain cancers, so it’s a good idea to talk to your doctor before starting antibiotics. It’s also a good idea to report any unusual symptoms right away, even if they don’t seem serious. The sooner cancer is diagnosed, the easier it is to treat.

Medical is a field that deals with human health and the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease. It encompasses research, education, and clinical practice. Medical scientists create new knowledge that is translated into improved healthcare and medical treatments, which in turn improve lives. The practice of medicine involves many aspects, including the development of therapies and drugs, testing their safety, efficacy and side effects. Physicians and other healthcare providers may also deal with ethical issues that arise in the course of their work. A defining characteristic of modern medicine is the emphasis on prevention and early detection, in addition to the delivery of care. This includes screening programs for various diseases and conditions, as well as health promotion and wellness initiatives. The medical profession is a global industry, with many different specialties and sub-fields. The most common are internal medicine, gynecology, endocrinology, pediatrics, psychiatry and gastroenterology. Other fields include pathology (the study of disease), dermatology, radiology and pharmacology. In most countries, a physician’s license to practice medicine requires passing national examinations that test his or her knowledge of the basic sciences, as well as the ability to apply those principles to patient care. This is intended to protect patients from charlatans who do not have the proper training and qualifications. The medical field is continually changing and expanding, thanks to advances in science and technology. These developments include the emergence of genetics and molecular biology, which have changed how doctors think about disease and how drugs are created. The aging of the world’s population is also a major influence on healthcare and medical procedures. Standardized medical terminology is a key component of this ongoing effort to keep up with scientific and technological advancements. This is important because it ensures that doctors from all over the world can communicate with each other effectively, despite differences in education and training. The terms used in medicine are often complex, as they must describe both the anatomical structures of the body and the processes that occur within them. To help with this, medical terminology is usually divided into three parts: the prefix, the root and the suffix. Generally, the roots are in Greek or Latin and follow a specific pattern: a Greek prefix is followed by a Latin suffix. It is also customary to avoid mixing lingual roots when creating new medical words. However, this is not always possible, especially when a word already exists in another language such as English. For example, the terms gastroenterology and hepatology have both Latin and Greek roots.

Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health is a fundamental human right and an essential requirement for the enjoyment of life. It is a collective responsibility of all peoples and requires the active cooperation of individuals and governments. Many definitions of health have been proposed. The World Health Organization defines it as “a state of well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” This is a broad and inclusive definition that allows for the inclusion of an individual’s social and spiritual wellbeing alongside their physical wellbeing. It also encourages a more holistic approach to the causes of health and illness, rather than simply focusing on the symptoms of disease. There is a growing recognition that health is not just about the absence of disease or infirmity, but encompasses an individual’s social, emotional and spiritual well-being as well. This new understanding of health has led to a shift in focus from treating disease to improving the overall quality of life. This includes promoting healthful lifestyles, such as exercise and good diet, and reducing unhealthful behaviours, such as smoking and excessive stress. The history of the concept of health has been influenced by different cultures and ideas about what is important to the human spirit. In antiquity, Democritus attributed health to the primary constitution of the human body (we now understand this as genetics), while Hippocrates linked it to lifestyle and environmental factors, such as diet and seasons’ changes, which have a significant impact on health, e.g. winter respiratory illnesses and summer digestive complaints. More recently, the concept of health has been shaped by Western medicine, which has contributed to the development of new diagnostic techniques and treatment options. It has also led to the development of medical ethics, which places the individual at the centre of their healthcare decision-making. The emphasis on the social determinants of health has also challenged the traditional view that the medical profession is the sole authority to define disease, and that it is the duty of those who are sick to seek help from physicians. The challenge now is to ensure that health is placed higher on the scales of individuals and communities’ values, so that pursuing healthy lifestyles becomes as natural as avoiding unhealthy ones. This will require an integrated approach to the promotion of health, with governments taking on a much greater role in addressing the social and economic drivers of poor health. It will also require a more holistic and interdisciplinary approach to research, and a willingness to change the ways in which health is understood and delivered around the world. This is a very big task. But if we don’t begin to tackle it now, the consequences for humanity may be very dire indeed. (1).

Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, reviewing and monitoring medicines. It is a multidisciplinary profession that links health sciences with pharmaceutical sciences and natural sciences. It is a key component of the healthcare system and is an integral part of the wider healthcare team. Pharmacists are trained to advise patients on the right medicine for their needs and to safely use medication. They are also trained to assess a patient’s response to treatment and identify any potential drug-related problems. Pharmacists can also prescribe medications and give vaccines to patients. They can help patients manage their medications and set up reminders for them to take them. They can also answer any questions about the disease or medication and refer patients to other healthcare professionals if needed. There is a large variety of prescription and over-the-counter (OTC) drugs available today. Many different medicines may treat a single disease and it is up to pharmacists to help patients, prescribers and doctors decide which ones will have the most beneficial results in the shortest timeframe. Pharmacists are also responsible for ensuring that the prescribed dose of medication is administered correctly and will not interfere with any other medications a patient may be taking. A pharmacist’s knowledge of a drug’s mode of action, metabolism and physiological effects on the body is vast and complex. This information, along with the pharmacy’s expertise in interpreting and evaluating medical histories, allows them to optimize a patient’s drug therapy. Pharmacists also play a vital role in drug development by performing research into the safety and efficacy of new medications and helping to develop formulations for new products. In addition to their technical knowledge, pharmacists are skilled in utilizing the latest technology to provide optimal patient care. This includes electronic health records (EHRs) and e-prescribing systems that allow them to transmit prescription orders directly to a patient’s primary care provider. This reduces paperwork and wait times for the patient. Additionally, the pharmacist can view a patient’s full medical history to avoid prescribing an ineffective or harmful medication. The pharmacist can also offer advice on lifestyle changes that will improve the health of a patient. For example, the pharmacist can recommend smoking cessation programs, nutritional supplements and ways to manage diseases like diabetes and high blood pressure. The pharmacist can even recommend an exercise program for patients with chronic diseases, such as heart disease or diabetes. A pharmacist can also help a patient manage their health through regular follow-up appointments. These meetings can include patient education on how to take their medication properly, monitor the effectiveness of treatments and detect any side effects early. These appointments can help the patient stay in control of their health and help them to live a happier and healthier life.