Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences and is charged with ensuring optimal drug use to improve patient outcomes. The profession encompasses more traditional roles such as compounding and dispensing medications on the orders of physicians, but it also includes more modern services such as clinical services, drug information, and consulting with patients to optimize medication therapy. The practice of pharmacy has a long history of collaboration with medicine and chemistry. Its roots extend to ancient Greece and Rome, where herbalists supplied physicians with the raw materials needed to make medicines. Under Arabian influence in Europe, the separation of duties between physician and pharmacist began to develop as a distinct practice. In America, Benjamin Franklin took the first steps to keep the two fields separate by establishing the apothecary system of his Philadelphia hospital. Today, pharmacy is a multidisciplinary field with many different career options. Pharmacy graduates have the option to pursue a wide range of scientific research and development, in addition to more clinically focused careers such as pharmacy resident or management positions. Many pharmacists are also small business owners and may own their own pharmacies. Pharmacists are experts in drug therapy. They are primarily responsible for optimizing drug treatment and ensuring that patients receive the highest quality of care and safety. They are educated in the science of drug therapy and have in-depth knowledge of drug properties, action, metabolism and physiology. In addition, they have expertise in the administration of drugs and vaccines. In a patient-oriented role, pharmacists counsel patients and educate the public on the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical products and drug therapies. They are also involved in drug discovery and drug development by working collaboratively with medical researchers, pharmacologists, biochemists, biologists, chemical engineers, geneticists, chemists and other scientists. Pharmacies are a critical part of the healthcare system. They are the primary source of prescription drugs and over-the-counter medication, as well as medical supplies and equipment. In addition, pharmacies are often the only locations where the general public can obtain vaccinations against common illnesses like the flu and shingles. Pharmacy also enables new advancements in healthcare through discovery-based research. Using the principles of medicinal chemistry, pharmaceutical biochemistry, pharmacology, molecular biology and chemical engineering, scientists seek to combat disease through the creation of novel medicines and delivery systems. Pharmacy is a growing and dynamic field with numerous opportunities for career advancement and personal fulfillment. For students who want to further their education, the University of Texas School of Pharmacy offers a PharmD program that leads to licensure as a pharmacist in all 50 states and several territories. A PharmD degree provides a solid foundation for careers in a variety of settings, including hospitals, clinics, and research laboratories. For those interested in pursuing an entrepreneurial career, the school also offers a Health Systems MBA. The combination of both degrees equips graduates with the skills necessary to succeed in business and advance healthcare in a complex world.

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Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells that can invade nearby tissues, metastasize (spread to other parts of the body), and erode or destroy normal tissue. Cancer is an extremely complex disease that kills about 10 million people per year worldwide. It is also a major cause of morbidity and disability in the US and other nations and causes tremendous suffering for patients and their loved ones. Most cancers start in the cells that make up tissue and then grow out of control. Cells are the basic building blocks that make up our bodies and are normally designed to grow, develop, repair and die in a precise way. But sometimes, when a cell is damaged or goes wrong, new cancer cells can form and these continue to grow. The build up of these abnormal cells over time forms a mass of tissue called a tumour or cancerous lump or growth. The process of creating a cancer starts with changes to the DNA in the cell. These are called mutations and can be caused by many things, such as getting older or smoking tobacco or being exposed to ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Mutations can also be hereditary, meaning they are inherited from our parents and may run in families. Once a cancer has formed, it can spread from its site of origin to other parts of the body by travelling through the blood or lymphatic system. This can stop important parts of the body from working properly, causing pain, fatigue and in some cases, death. In multicellular organisms, like humans, most cell types have a limited number of times they can divide. When this limit is exceeded, the cell will usually die, a process known as programmed cell death. The exception to this is stem cells, which are cells that can differentiate into specialized cell types. Stem cells have a kind of replicative immortality. The accumulating mutations in a cancerous stem cell allow it to multiply continuously and escape the normal controls on cell division. As it does so, it acquires traits that allow it to survive a wider range of conditions than its normal noncancerous cells. These include a tolerance to acidic conditions, an ability to grow faster by taking in nutrients from the bloodstream and an ability to co-opt or trick other cells into helping it multiply. These are a few of the reasons why cancers can be so difficult to treat.

Medical is the science and practice of caring for patients with illness, disease or injury. This care includes diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, palliation and promotion of health. Doctors use a variety of methods and treatments, including surgery, medication, radiation, and laboratory tests. The first step in providing good medical care is taking a patient’s history. A patient’s medical history is important because it can provide valuable clues about the cause of the problem. It can also help doctors avoid making mistakes that could be harmful to the patient, such as giving someone a drug they’re allergic to. A patient’s family medical history is also very important because many diseases run in families. Knowing a person’s family history can help doctors spot problems early, such as heart disease or cancer. It can also allow doctors to give screening tests that can catch these diseases before they become serious. Medicine is a broad field, and different doctors specialize in specific areas. Some specialties include nutrition, pathology, pharmacology, and radiology. Nutritionists study how diet affects health and can help treat, cure, or prevent diseases. Pathologists examine samples of blood, urine, and body tissue to diagnose illnesses. Pharmacologists study pharmaceutical medications, or drugs, and how they work in the human body. Radiologists use X-rays and other equipment to test for and diagnose illnesses. Medical ethics are the principles that guide physicians in their professional duties and responsibilities to their patients. There are several ethical theories that can be applied to medical practices, but the most important one is beneficence. Beneficence means that physicians must act to benefit the patient as much as possible. This can mean prescribing certain medications that may prolong a life or decrease the risk of disease, or it can simply mean being sure to tell patients about all the risks and benefits of a particular procedure. Another principle is non-maleficence, or the obligation to do no harm to a patient. This is sometimes referred to as the Hippocratic Oath. This obligation is very complex and applies to both the physician and the patient. It requires that physicians provide accurate information about a procedure, explain the risks and benefits, and offer reasonable alternatives. In addition, physicians must respect patients’ autonomy and not impose their own values or morals on them. Other ethical issues that can arise in medicine include abortion, genetic testing, end-of-life care, and organ donation. All of these issues are debated in the medical community and by the public. There are also legal issues involved, such as malpractice claims. A major case in modern medical history is Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board, which established the basic legal definition of negligence.

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Cancer isn’t just one disease — there are more than 100 different kinds. Each type of cancer has its own characteristics, how it grows and spreads in the body, what kind of symptoms it causes, and whether or not it can be cured. Some cancers are easier to treat than others. But no matter what kind of cancer you have, it is always important to seek treatment as soon as possible because the sooner you get diagnosed, the better your chances are of being cured. Cancer starts when cells in the body begin to grow and divide without control or order. This abnormal growth can form a mass of abnormal cells, known as a tumour. Cancer can also spread from the place where it starts to other parts of the body through the bloodstream and lymphatic system. This process is called metastasis. All the cells in your body have a control centre called a nucleus that holds genes, which are long strings of coded messages that tell the cell how to behave. Sometimes changes (mutations) in the genes can happen, causing cells to start growing and multiplying out of control and developing into cancer. These abnormal cells can then outnumber the normal cells in an area and cause tumours to grow and spread. There are many things that can cause cancer, including ageing, inherited faulty genes and certain viruses. But most cancers develop due to a mix of genes and lifestyle factors, such as smoking tobacco, being overweight, drinking alcohol, exposure to radiation and infections with viruses like Hepatitis B and the human papilloma virus (HPV). Some cancers can be prevented by avoiding risk factors. The immune system is a network of organs and cells that protect the body against infection and disease. It is made up of lymph nodes, spleen and the thymus, as well as white blood cells that attack germs. Some cancers can start in cells that make up the immune system, for example cancers of the lymphatic system and leukaemia. Other cancers can start in other types of cells, for example cancers that grow from the bones and connective tissue, such as sarcoma, or from germ cells, such as seminoma and dysgerminoma. Symptoms of cancer depend on the type and location of the tumour, but most cancers have at least one common sign: pain that doesn’t go away. This includes nagging pain that doesn’t respond to treatment, persistent coughing or a lump in the breast. If you have any of these symptoms for more than a few weeks or they worsen, see your doctor. Managing symptoms is an important part of cancer treatment. But it is also important to try and prevent symptoms from happening in the first place. You can do this by getting regular check-ups, being aware of the 7 warning signs of cancer and visiting your doctor if you notice any new or persisting symptoms that don’t go away.

Medicine is a profession and practice that involves treating diseases, illnesses and injuries. Historically, it was often seen as an art (requiring creativity and skill), with roots in religion and philosophy, such as herbalism and the Greek “four humours”. Increasingly, it has become a science, requiring sophisticated research and analysis. This shift was accelerated by the fourteenth and fifteenth century Black Death pandemic, the rise of universities and the Catholic Church, and advances such as Edward Jenner’s smallpox vaccine, Robert Koch’s discovery of bacteria, and the invention of antibiotics. There are a number of different fields in medicine, and each has its own sub-disciplines. For example, biochemistry is the study of chemical components of living cells and organisms. The branch of medicine known as pathology is the scientific diagnosis of disease, using tissue samples to determine the cause and course of a disorder. Clinical pharmacology is the medical and scientific study of pharmaceutical medications, including where they come from, how they work, and their side effects. The field of radiology uses X-rays to diagnose and treat diseases. The discipline of neuroscience is the scientific study of the brain and spinal cord. This includes their anatomy and physiology, as well as the neural mechanisms that control movement and emotion. There are also some medical specialties that apply biological science to human behaviour, such as behavioural medicine and psychotherapy. Another medical field is forensic medicine, which studies questions of criminal law and evidence, such as determination of time of death, the type of weapon used to inflict injury, and facial reconstruction to aid identification. A forensic scientist may be involved in the preservation and collection of human remains. Most countries have laws governing the training and accreditation of doctors. This generally requires a medical degree from a university and registration with a medical board or equivalent organisation, who may require a doctor to pass exams. The laws are intended to restrict the practice of medicine to those who are trained and qualified to do so, as a protection against charlatans who practise unproven therapies for financial gain. There are also a wide variety of medical ethics, which are concerned with moral issues that arise in the practice of medicine. These include ethical dilemmas that can arise when the values of a patient or their family conflict with those of the hospital staff. They can also involve conflicts between the medical community and wider society, or even within a single hospital. In some cases, no clear answer to a moral question exists, and the matter is left to the discretion of the individual doctor. These matters are discussed in medical journals and at conferences. Medical coding is performed all over the world, with most countries using an official set of codes established by the World Health Organization and modified by each country to suit their own needs. These codes are based on the International Classification of Diseases, and include everything from conditions and diseases to poisons, neoplasms, injuries, causes of accidents, etc.

Health refers to an individual’s emotional, mental and physical well-being. Healthcare exists to help people stay healthy and cope with the effects of disease, illness or injury. Health is also a key factor in managing stress and achieving a balanced lifestyle. In 1948, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” This definition has since become a foundation for the organization’s work. However, a simple definition of health does not always suffice for understanding how health works and the factors that determine it. The prevailing negative conception of health is not adequate in an era marked by rapid advances in our understanding of disease processes at molecular and personal levels, and the knowledge that it may never be possible to achieve risk-free wellbeing. The concept of allostasis provides a more appropriate framework for understanding health and disease. This theory defines health as the ability to adapt to environmental stresses and defines disease as a loss of this adaptive capacity. This new perspective on health is the basis of a growing body of scientific research and offers a more principled, holistic view of human health than the traditional, mechanistic approach that underpins many medical practices today. A person’s health is determined by a complex interaction of genetic, biological, social and environmental factors. Some of these factors are within the control of the individual, such as choices they make about their lifestyle and habits. However, others are not. For example, a genetic tendency towards a disease can be triggered by an environmental factor, such as exposure to an infectious organism. It is therefore difficult to achieve a universally agreed definition of health, as it depends on each individual’s assessment of their own situation and their own preferences and values. These assessments are shaped throughout life by the influence of parents, friends, teachers, the media, laws and one’s own past experiences and life course. Changing the position of health on these scales would require efforts not only to remove diseases and diminish risk factors but also to change the values of society as a whole. The definition of health a person has may be influenced by the place it occupies on the scale of values that they have established for themselves, which can be influenced by many factors, including the quality of healthcare available, and the extent to which people value their own health and the importance they attach to preventing disease. A high esteem for health will lead to people undertaking whatever they need to do to promote it, including seeking treatment for illness and taking preventive measures. The result is that health becomes a normal part of daily living. This is an ideal that can be achieved, but it is not a task for the healthcare sector alone to undertake. It needs the full involvement of everyone in the community.

Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, and monitoring medications to ensure safe, effective, and affordable treatment. The practice of pharmacy is unique because it links health sciences with pharmaceutical sciences and natural sciences. Pharmacists are licensed health care professionals who work in pharmacies, hospitals, clinics, medical offices, universities, and governmental facilities to fill prescriptions and help patients with questions about medication and side effects. They also play an important role in drug research and development. While people have been using plants and other natural substances as medicines for thousands of years, professional pharmacy began to emerge in the mid-nineteenth century. Pharmacy is now a complex and specialized field that requires extensive training and knowledge of both the scientific and medical aspects of drugs and their proper use. Pharmacy is a demanding career that may require long hours, including evenings and weekends. It’s important for anyone considering a career as a pharmacist to think through their motivations carefully and be sure that this is the right path for them. In addition, individuals interested in pharmacy should be aware of the educational and licensing requirements in their state. As a pharmacy student, you will likely need to have a high school diploma or equivalent and complete college-level courses in chemistry, biology, mathematics, and physics. You’ll then need to graduate from an accredited pharmacy school and pass both the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX) and the Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Examination (MPJE). After you’ve passed these exams, you can become licensed by your state board of pharmacy. Pharmacy students often participate in experiential education, which means that they work in health care settings alongside experienced pharmacists. This can expose them to more health risks than a typical university student. Therefore, all OHSU pharmacy students are required to have high-quality health insurance or request a waiver if they already have coverage that meets the necessary criteria. You can learn more about the OHSU student health insurance program and waiver criteria on the student health insurance website.